In the last unit of this course, we are going to go through the macroscopic structures of a piece of music. On the AP Music Theory exam, you won’t have to identify these, but you will be told that a certain excerpt comes from a particular section of a piece, and this might be helpful context in your analysis. 

Exposition

The exposition (a.k.a. introduction) is the opening section of a piece of music, typically in a sonata, symphony or concerto, where the main musical ideas and themes are introduced. It is often the first section of a multi-movement work, and sets the stage for the rest of the piece. In the exposition, the composer presents the main melodies and harmonies of the piece, often using contrasting themes to create interest and provide a basis for later development. 

The exposition also establishes the key and form of the piece, and often includes an introduction of one or more themes that will be developed later in the work. The goal of the exposition is to provide the listener with a clear understanding of the material that will be explored and developed throughout the piece.

There are many famous examples of expositions in classical music. Some of the most well-known include:

1. Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 - The famous four-note motif that opens the symphony is a well-known example of an exposition.
2. Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 - The first movement of this symphony is a textbook example of a sonata-form exposition.
3. Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 5 in E minor, Op. 64 - The opening of this symphony is a powerful and dramatic example of an exposition.
4. Brahms's Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 68 - The first movement of this symphony is a complex and elaborate example of a sonata-form exposition.
5. Haydn's Symphony No. 104 in D major, Hob. I:104 - The first movement of this symphony is a bright and cheerful example of a sonata-form exposition.

These are just a few examples of famous expositions in classical music. Each of these works showcases the unique musical voice of its composer and provides a glimpse into the musical language and techniques used during the classical period.

Interludes

An interlude is a musical piece that serves as a transition or break between two main sections of a larger work, such as an opera, musical, or ballet. It typically provides a contrast in mood, rhythm, or style from the surrounding music, and may serve to mark a change of scene or time. Interludes can be played by a full ensemble, or by a single instrument, and can range from simple chord progressions to complex and fully developed pieces. Usually, an interlude is instrumental (no vocals!) and it will contain an instrumental solo or soli. 

Some famous examples of interludes in classical music include the "Intermezzo" from Mascagni's "Cavalleria Rusticana," the "Intermezzo" from Puccini's "Manon Lescaut," and the "Intermezzo" from Tchaikovsky's "Swan Lake."

Bridges

A bridge is a specific type of interlude that comes before the final chorus of a piece. It is usually characterized as being in vocal music. The bridge that connects two main sections of a song, often the verse and the chorus. It provides a transition or contrast from the rest of the song, typically with a different chord progression, melody, or rhythm. The bridge usually serves to provide a break from the repetition of the verse and chorus and to create tension that leads back to the chorus. It is also used to introduce new musical or lyrical ideas to the listener. 

Examples of well-known bridges in popular music include "Norwegian Wood" by The Beatles and "Under Pressure" by Queen and David Bowie.

Verses 

A verse in music theory refers to a section of a song that typically contains the main lyrics and sets up the background or story for the song. It often has a specific melody and rhythm, but can also be harmonically distinct from the chorus or refrain. The verse is typically repeated a number of times throughout the song, with changes in the lyrics to reflect the progression of the story. 

Chorus 

The verse often leads into the chorus, which is a repeating section of a song that typically features the main melody and lyrics. It is often the centerpiece of a song, and its melody and lyrics are designed to be memorable and catchy. The chorus is typically repeated several times throughout the song and serves to provide contrast to the verse, which typically features different lyrics and a different melody. The chorus and verse together form the structure of most popular songs and can help to convey the central message or emotion of the song.

Just like bridges and verses, choruses are usually associated with vocal music. 

Although we are used to hearing choruses in popular music, there are also several examples in classical music. They include: 

1. "Hallelujah" chorus from Handel's "Messiah"
2. "Anvil Chorus" from Verdi's "Il Trovatore"
3. "Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves" from Verdi's "Nabucco"
4. "Soldiers' Chorus" from Gounod's "Faust"
5. "Triumphal March" from Verdi's "Aida"
6. "Chorus of the Bacchantes" from Saint-Saens's "Samson and Delilah"
7. "Chorus of the Damned" from Berlioz's "The Damnation of Faust"
8. "Chorus of the spirits" from Mozart's "Don Giovanni"
9. "Chorus of the wedding guests" from Wagner's "Lohengrin".

Refrains 

A refrain is also similar to a chorus, but although a chorus is defined by its harmonic and melodic structure as well as its lyrics, refrains may vary their harmonic progressions and melodies, but the lyrics will be repeated. 

It serves as the main catchphrase or hook of a song and is typically repeated several times throughout the piece, often with variations or modifications to keep the audience engaged. Refrains are commonly found in popular music genres such as pop, rock, and hip-hop, but can also be found in classical pieces such as chorale and hymn music.

Codas and Codettas 

A coda is a musical term that refers to the final section of a piece of music. It is typically a short, conclusive section that appears after the main body of the piece and serves as a closing or concluding section. The coda is used to bring the piece to a satisfying and definitive conclusion, often providing a sense of closure and resolution.

In classical music, codas are typically used in larger works such as symphonies or concertos. The coda can be a simple, straightforward conclusion or it can be a complex section that employs a range of musical devices and techniques to bring the piece to a close. Some common features of codas include restatement of themes, recapitulation of previous material, and the use of key changes or harmonic progressions to bring the piece to a close.

A codetta, on the other hand, is a short, concluding section that appears at the end of a phrase or movement within a piece of music. Unlike a coda, which is typically used to conclude the entire piece, a codetta serves as a concluding section for a specific section within the piece.

Codettas are often used in classical music to provide a sense of resolution and closure for individual phrases or sections. They can be simple, consisting of a few bars of music that provide a sense of closure, or they can be more complex and include a range of musical devices and techniques. For example, a codetta may include restatement of themes, repetition of rhythmic patterns, or the use of key changes to bring the phrase to a close.

In many cases, codettas and codas are used together in a piece of music, with codettas serving as a series of mini-conclusions that lead up to the final, conclusive coda. This can help to provide a sense of structure and progression throughout the piece, allowing the listener to follow the music and anticipate the final resolution.

Perhaps the most famous (infamous?) coda among pianists is the coda of Chopin’s Ballade No 1. It is super intense and super fast – and also super beautiful. You can listen to the whole piece here. 

Here are some examples of famous codas and codettas in classical music:

1. Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 - The coda of the final movement is one of the most famous in classical music, with its triumphant choral setting of Friedrich Schiller's "Ode to Joy".
2. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 - The coda of the first movement is a famous example of Mozart's use of codas, where he builds on the material from the development section to create a powerful conclusion to the movement.
3. Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 94 in G major, "Surprise" - The coda of the second movement is a famous example of Haydn's use of codettas, where he adds a short section to the end of a phrase or a movement to bring it to a conclusion.
4. Franz Schubert's Symphony No. 8 in B minor, D. 759 - The coda of the final movement is a famous example of Schubert's use of codas, where he builds on the material from the development section to create a powerful conclusion to the symphony.
5. Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor, Op. 27, No. 2 - The coda of the first movement is a famous example of Beethoven's use of codas, where he adds a final section to the end of the movement to bring it to a conclusion.

🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: Can you find examples of expositions, codas/codettas, interludes, bridges, refrains, and choruses in the music that you listen to every day? Try to name a few examples. 

…and that’s all for AP Music Theory! A few final reminders for you: 

1. Go practice!
2. Theory is good for you – even though it’s not as fun as playing music, it will help you better understand and interpret the pieces you’re playing
3. Go practice some more